The approach behind Communities That Care

The approach

Risk and protective factors, the Social Development Model, and why participation is not optional: the science that Communities That Care is built on.

Contents

01Risk and protective factors
02The Social Development Model
03Why participation is not optional

Risk and protective factors

The core building block of Communities That Care is the concept of risk and protective factors. Decades of research show that certain conditions and influences in a young person's life raise the likelihood of problem behaviour, whether substance use, violence, offending or dropping out of school. These are risk factors. Other conditions lower that likelihood and promote healthy development. These are protective factors.

Both are found in every area of a young person's life:

Individual and peers: personal attitudes such as risk-taking and views on problem behaviour, the company they keep, early behavioural patterns.
Family: parenting style, including supervision and clear rules, family cohesion, conflict, and parents' own attitudes to problem behaviour.
School: commitment to school, academic success, school climate, and opportunities to take part.
Community and neighbourhood: social ties, the availability of drugs or weapons, shared norms, and opportunities for involvement.

What makes this useful is that many of these factors are non-specific. A single elevated risk factor, such as low commitment to school, raises the risk of several problems at once, for instance both drug use and offending. A strong protective factor, such as family cohesion, guards against several problems in the same way.

CTC puts this knowledge to work by helping a community identify, through local data and above all the CTC youth survey, which risk and protective factors are most pronounced among its own children and young people. That makes prevention planning targeted and economical: resources go where the local data says they are needed.

The developmental theory that explains how these factors operate, and how positive development can be fostered, is the Social Development Model developed by J. David Hawkins and Richard F. Catalano.

The model describes how young people learn social behaviour, both prosocial and problematic. At its centre is bonding to social units that encourage prosocial behaviour: family, school, positive peer groups and the wider community. Strong bonds of this kind are among the most important protective factors there are.

Such bonds form and strengthen when three conditions are met:

Opportunities: children and young people need chances to take part actively and meaningfully in family, school and community life, to contribute, to take responsibility and to make a positive difference.
Skills: they need the social, emotional and cognitive competences to make use of those opportunities and to handle challenges, among them communication, problem-solving and self-regulation.
Recognition: their effort, involvement and prosocial behaviour must be noticed, acknowledged and valued. That recognition reinforces the behaviour and deepens the bond.

When all three are present, young people develop a strong emotional attachment to these prosocial units. Through that attachment they adopt the group's values, norms and beliefs, and they form healthy convictions and clear standards for their own conduct.

The result: young people with strong prosocial bonds are more likely to behave prosocially themselves, to engage positively in their community, and to be resilient against negative influences. Conversely, weak bonds to prosocial units, or strong bonds to antisocial ones such as offending peers, lead to the adoption of problematic norms and behaviour.

Hawkins & Catalano · 1996Fig. 1

The Social Development Strategy

How bonds form, and why they lead to healthy behaviour: the causal chain behind every CTC programme.

Explore the model

01/ 04
Conditions
Three things the community has to provide.
Before a young person can form a durable bond to a group, three conditions have to be in place, together, not one at a time.
- Opportunitiesparticipation and involvement
- Skillscompetences and abilities
- Recognitionappreciation and praise
Bonding
Belonging and trust take shape.
Out of this mixture grows a durable bond to the group or community: the child feels it belongs and develops trust.
Causal step 01 → 02. Only when all three conditions are met at the same time can involvement turn into a real bond.
03/ 04
Healthy beliefs
Bonding plus clear standards become values of one's own.
Where the group a child bonds to lives by clear, healthy standards, the child takes those standards on as an inner attitude and conviction.
- Clear standardsexplicit healthy norms the reference group lives by
Behaviour
Healthy, prosocial behaviour.
From values of one's own follows healthy, prosocial and health-promoting behaviour, the goal of the whole process.

Fig. 1The Social Development Strategy, the practical form of the Social Development Model (Catalano & Hawkins, 1996), in an editorial CTC visualisation.

Why participation is not optional

The Social Development Model makes clear that participation is integral to effective prevention. Genuine involvement is what creates the opportunities through which young people build bonds in the first place.

Participation matters just as much at the level of the community's institutions. The entire CTC process is designed to build the community's own capacity. How the board, the key leaders and the work groups divide that work is set out phase by phase on the five phases page:

Shared analysis: the local CTC coalition, drawn from different sectors and ideally including residents and young people themselves, examines the local data together.
Shared decisions: the coalition sets priorities jointly and decides which evidence-based programmes to implement.
Local ownership: active participation produces a sense of ownership of the prevention strategy. Measures are not prescribed from outside; the community designs and carries them itself.

This participatory way of working is not only a principle of health promotion. It is a documented factor in the sustainability and effectiveness of community prevention. It builds what researchers call community capacity: the ability of a community to plan, deliver and sustain prevention on its own terms.

Research matrix

Risk factors and what they predict

The matrix shows which risk factors are linked, by at least two longitudinal studies, to the five problem behaviours of adolescence. Select the i next to a factor to open its explanation without losing the overview.

Factors: 19
Domains: 4
Behaviours: 5

Association documentedno documented associationSelect a row to open its explanation

Risk factors for adolescent problem behaviour, grouped by domain (family, school, children and young people, neighbourhood) and their association with five problem behaviours.
Risk factor	Violence	Delinquency	Alcohol & drugs	School dropout	Depression & anxiety
FAMILY4 factors
Family history of the problem behaviour Children who grow up in a family where a parent or sibling is or has been dependent on alcohol or drugs are more likely to develop alcohol or drug problems themselves. Children born into and raised in a family with a history of offending are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.
Family management problems Family management problems include parents having no clear expectations of how they want their children to behave, and parents supervising and monitoring their children insufficiently, so that they do not know where their children are or whom they are with.
Family conflict Persistent, serious conflict between parents, or between parents and their children, raises the risk of problems for the children. Experiencing domestic violence, for instance, makes it more likely that a child will later use violence themselves.
Parental attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour Parents' attitudes and behaviour regarding drugs, crime and violence shape the attitudes and behaviour of their children. Children whose parents condone or downplay breaking the law are at greater risk of becoming involved in youth offending.
SCHOOL3 factors
Early and persistent antisocial behaviour Children aged roughly five to eight who behave aggressively at school or struggle to control their impulses are at greater risk of later drug use, offending and violence.
Academic failure beginning in late primary school Poor school performance from the last years of primary school onwards signals an increased likelihood of problem behaviour. Children may underperform for many reasons, but whatever the cause, the experience of failure itself is what raises the risk.
Lack of commitment to school Lack of commitment to school means that school has stopped being a central part of a child's life. Young people who have lost this point of reference are at greater risk of developing problem behaviour.
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE5 factors
Alienation and rebelliousness Young people who do not feel part of society, who do not follow common rules, who make no effort to be responsible and successful, or who take an actively rebellious stance towards society are at greater risk of drug use, offending, dropping out of school and violence.
Friends who engage in the problem behaviour Young people who spend time with peers who show problem behaviour are more likely to develop the same problems. This is one of the most consistently documented risk factors in the research.
Attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour In primary school, children tend to be opposed to drugs and crime and find it hard to imagine why anyone would use drugs, offend or drop out of school. Over the years, their attitudes may shift. Those who come to approve of drug use, rule-breaking or violence are more likely to engage in them.
Early initiation of the problem behaviour The earlier young people lose interest in school, use drugs, commit offences or become sexually active, the more likely they are to have problems with that behaviour later on.
Constitutional factors Constitutional factors have a biological or physiological origin. They are common among young people who seek out sensation, do not avoid danger and have difficulty controlling their impulses.
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY7 factors
Availability of drugs The more drugs and alcohol are available in an area, the more likely it is that they will be used there. The perception that drugs are easy to obtain is itself a risk factor.
Availability of weapons Most European countries regulate firearms far more strictly than the United States, where this factor was first described. In a European setting it is therefore chiefly about the possession and carrying of other weapons, above all knives. Where weapons are easy to obtain and carrying them is common, the risk of violence and offending rises.
Community norms favourable to the problem behaviour An area's norms, attitudes and policies on drugs, violence and crime are communicated in many ways: through laws and public statements, through informal social interaction, and through the expectations that parents and other residents hold of young people.
Media portrayals of violence The effect of media violence on viewers, especially young ones, has long been debated. There is evidence that it can influence the acceptance and use of violence. Smoking and drinking on screen likewise raise the risk that young people will start smoking or drinking themselves.
Transitions and mobility Residents of areas with high turnover and mobility are at greater risk of drug and crime problems. The more people move house within an area, the higher, statistically, its rates of crime and drug use.
Low neighbourhood attachment and community disorganisation Areas whose residents feel little attachment to their neighbourhood, which show high rates of vandalism, and where public spaces are poorly supervised tend to have more problems with drugs, drug dealing, crime and violence.
Extreme economic and social deprivation Children who grow up in areas marked by poverty, poor living conditions and high unemployment are at greater risk of developing problems in adolescence and later adulthood.

FAMILY4 factors

Family history of the problem behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Family management problems
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Family conflict
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Parental attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety

SCHOOL3 factors

Early and persistent antisocial behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Academic failure beginning in late primary school
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Lack of commitment to school
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety

CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE5 factors

Alienation and rebelliousness
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Friends who engage in the problem behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Early initiation of the problem behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Constitutional factors
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety

NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY7 factors

Availability of drugs
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Availability of weapons
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Community norms favourable to the problem behaviour
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Media portrayals of violence
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Transitions and mobility
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Low neighbourhood attachment and community disorganisation
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety
Extreme economic and social deprivation
- Violence
- Delinquency
- Alcohol & drugs
- School dropout
- Depression & anxiety

Source:Risk-factor chart after SAMHSA/NIZW/NJI (2008). Each mark means that at least two longitudinal studies confirm the association. Teenage pregnancy and gang involvement, present in the US table, are omitted here because they carry little weight in most European settings. Weapon availability is described for a European context, where firearms are strictly regulated and the factor concerns knives and other weapons.

Show all 19 explanations as text

A linear version of all risk factors, for printing, for screen readers, and for reading straight through without popovers.

FAMILY
Family history of the problem behaviour
Children who grow up in a family where a parent or sibling is or has been dependent on alcohol or drugs are more likely to develop alcohol or drug problems themselves. Children born into and raised in a family with a history of offending are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout · Depression and anxiety
FAMILY
Family management problems
Family management problems include parents having no clear expectations of how they want their children to behave, and parents supervising and monitoring their children insufficiently, so that they do not know where their children are or whom they are with.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout · Depression and anxiety
FAMILY
Family conflict
Persistent, serious conflict between parents, or between parents and their children, raises the risk of problems for the children. Experiencing domestic violence, for instance, makes it more likely that a child will later use violence themselves.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout · Depression and anxiety
FAMILY
Parental attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour
Parents' attitudes and behaviour regarding drugs, crime and violence shape the attitudes and behaviour of their children. Children whose parents condone or downplay breaking the law are at greater risk of becoming involved in youth offending.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse
SCHOOL
Early and persistent antisocial behaviour
Children aged roughly five to eight who behave aggressively at school or struggle to control their impulses are at greater risk of later drug use, offending and violence.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout · Depression and anxiety
SCHOOL
Academic failure beginning in late primary school
Poor school performance from the last years of primary school onwards signals an increased likelihood of problem behaviour. Children may underperform for many reasons, but whatever the cause, the experience of failure itself is what raises the risk.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout · Depression and anxiety
SCHOOL
Lack of commitment to school
Lack of commitment to school means that school has stopped being a central part of a child's life. Young people who have lost this point of reference are at greater risk of developing problem behaviour.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE
Alienation and rebelliousness
Young people who do not feel part of society, who do not follow common rules, who make no effort to be responsible and successful, or who take an actively rebellious stance towards society are at greater risk of drug use, offending, dropping out of school and violence.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE
Friends who engage in the problem behaviour
Young people who spend time with peers who show problem behaviour are more likely to develop the same problems. This is one of the most consistently documented risk factors in the research.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE
Attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour
In primary school, children tend to be opposed to drugs and crime and find it hard to imagine why anyone would use drugs, offend or drop out of school. Over the years, their attitudes may shift. Those who come to approve of drug use, rule-breaking or violence are more likely to engage in them.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE
Early initiation of the problem behaviour
The earlier young people lose interest in school, use drugs, commit offences or become sexually active, the more likely they are to have problems with that behaviour later on.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE
Constitutional factors
Constitutional factors have a biological or physiological origin. They are common among young people who seek out sensation, do not avoid danger and have difficulty controlling their impulses.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · Depression and anxiety
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Availability of drugs
The more drugs and alcohol are available in an area, the more likely it is that they will be used there. The perception that drugs are easy to obtain is itself a risk factor.
Acts on: Violence · Alcohol and drug misuse
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Availability of weapons
Most European countries regulate firearms far more strictly than the United States, where this factor was first described. In a European setting it is therefore chiefly about the possession and carrying of other weapons, above all knives. Where weapons are easy to obtain and carrying them is common, the risk of violence and offending rises.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Community norms favourable to the problem behaviour
An area's norms, attitudes and policies on drugs, violence and crime are communicated in many ways: through laws and public statements, through informal social interaction, and through the expectations that parents and other residents hold of young people.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Media portrayals of violence
The effect of media violence on viewers, especially young ones, has long been debated. There is evidence that it can influence the acceptance and use of violence. Smoking and drinking on screen likewise raise the risk that young people will start smoking or drinking themselves.
Acts on: Violence · Alcohol and drug misuse
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Transitions and mobility
Residents of areas with high turnover and mobility are at greater risk of drug and crime problems. The more people move house within an area, the higher, statistically, its rates of crime and drug use.
Acts on: Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout · Depression and anxiety
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Low neighbourhood attachment and community disorganisation
Areas whose residents feel little attachment to their neighbourhood, which show high rates of vandalism, and where public spaces are poorly supervised tend to have more problems with drugs, drug dealing, crime and violence.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse
NEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY
Extreme economic and social deprivation
Children who grow up in areas marked by poverty, poor living conditions and high unemployment are at greater risk of developing problems in adolescence and later adulthood.
Acts on: Violence · Delinquency · Alcohol and drug misuse · School dropout

Next steps

Read on

Resources
Youth survey
How the factors are measured locally
Resources
Evidence registers
Where to find programmes that address them
Resources
Literature
The research behind the model

The approach

Risk and protective factors

The Social Development Model

The Social Development Strategy

Three things the community has to provide.

Belonging and trust take shape.

Bonding plus clear standards become values of one's own.

Healthy, prosocial behaviour.

Why participation is not optional

IFAMILY4 factors

IISCHOOL3 factors

IIICHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE5 factors

IVNEIGHBOURHOOD / COMMUNITY7 factors

Family history of the problem behaviour

Family management problems

Family conflict

Parental attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour

Early and persistent antisocial behaviour

Academic failure beginning in late primary school

Lack of commitment to school

Alienation and rebelliousness

Friends who engage in the problem behaviour

Attitudes favourable to the problem behaviour

Early initiation of the problem behaviour

Constitutional factors

Availability of drugs

Availability of weapons

Community norms favourable to the problem behaviour

Media portrayals of violence

Transitions and mobility

Low neighbourhood attachment and community disorganisation

Extreme economic and social deprivation